The final two weeks of FutureLearn and Yad Vashem’s online course investigating anti-Semitism are now available to the public. Weeks 1 and 2 investigated the definitions and origins of anti-Semitism in both antiquity and the modern era. Weeks 3 and 4 continued this trend by exploring the Holocaust, as well as more contemporary manifestations of anti-Semitism. Over the final two weeks, the course concludes with a discussion of anti-Semitism in the Arab World, as well as what the future may hold for addressing anti-Semitism.

The overarching theme of week 5 is the investigation into a realm that has not been discussed in the course so far—the Islamic and Arab world. This week begins by studying the early years of Islam, and specifically the dynamic between Muslims and Jews in the early days of that religion. The prophet of Islam, Muhammad, initially held high hopes that the Jews of the Arabian Peninsula would convert to Islam. This hope was founded in his belief that Muslims and Jews were very similar because of the several elements of Jewish tradition that he adopted. Similarly, he held very close relationships with several of the Jewish tribes of the Arabian Peninsula. However, when they declined to convert to Islam, an enmity was born out of disappointment which would endure for centuries. Jews’ status in the Quran—the Holy text of Islam—is also perplexing. On one hand, Judaism is described as a divine religion with some very positive elements. On the other hand, the Quran describes Jews as having distorted the true message of Moses and as being deceitful, mean people. This negative portrayal of Judaism has especially harmed the relationship between Islam and Judaism, since the messages of the Quran are the eternal word of God according to the teachings of Islam, and as such, cannot be changed.

The expansion of Islamic rule necessitated a practical policy that would regulate the activities of non-Muslims and ascribe a clear place to them. Jews were granted the protection of Muslim law, owing to their status as a monotheistic religion. This protection allowed them a certain level of religious and social autonomy, however, this peaceful existence depended on their acceptance of an inferior status in society. And while there were few examples of anti-Jewish violence, the violent form of anti-Semitism that marred medieval Christian Europe largely did not appear in the Islamic and Arab world. This is likely because of the special role that Jews held in Christian theology as the “killers of Christ,” as well as their history of being segregated as strangers in Western Europe. These factors, which did not exist in medieval Islam, resulted in a much more amenable situation for the Jews.

This condition would change in the 19^th century when the development and spread of anti-Semitism resulted in a shift in the way Jews were treated and perceived. This change was mainly due to three factors: the importation of European ideologies and concepts, the collapse of traditional political systems and the loyalties and practices associated with them, and the appearance of Zionism. One such ideology that proved to be detrimental to the Jews under Islamic rule was the idea of nationalism, which spread across the Arab world and gained prominence in the 20^th century. The fact the Islam became one of the elements required to be a national meant that Jews would once again be viewed as the “other”. This sentiment, when combined with the geopolitical weakness of the Muslim world at the time, created a sense of deep crisis among Muslims and resulted in a worsening in the attitude towards Christian and Jewish minorities. Finally, the rise of Zionism also proved detrimental to the status of Jews in the Islamic world. The collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the European takeover of the Middle Eastern countries following WWI, and the recognized need for a Jewish state in the Balfour Declaration all contributed to rising Zionism and a rise in anti-Semitism. Though anti-Semitism became prolific during this era, the rise of the Muslim Brotherhood facilitated a shift towards violent anti-Semitism, evidenced by the pogrom initiated against the Jews of Cairo in 1948.

It was also in the middle of the 20^th century that Islamism, which can be understood as the interpretation of Islam as a state order, became more pronounced. Islamism can manifest itself in one of two avenues: institutional and jihadist. Those following institutional Islamism abandon the use of violence, and are willing to work through institutions to accomplish their goals (an example would be the AKP—Justice and Development Party of Turkey). Jihadist Islamism, or violent Islamism, argues that the best way to seize power is through violence and terrorism. The origins of contemporary radical groups, such as al-Qaeda and ISIS, can be found in the actions of the Muslim Brotherhood, who pioneered jihadist Islamism. The rise of Islamism engendered a new interpretation of history, one in which resentment of the Jews of the early Islamic period was translated into an emotional and intellectual hatred, which also combined modern anti-Semitic perceptions and rhetoric.

Week 5 concludes with a discussion of how anti-Semitic discourse is expressed and transmitted using various types of media active in the Arab and Islamic world today. Using age-old anti-Semitic tropes and refusing to air programs which portray Jews in a positive light are just a few of the many ways in which anti-Semitism in manifested in the media. While much of the media in the Arab world portrays negative or hostile attitudes towards Israel and the Jews, most Muslim states tend not to utilize anti-Semitism as an official political stance. However, there is one state where anti-Semitism, and particularly Holocaust denial, is propagated and sanctioned by the state itself: Iran. Never afraid to resort to anti-Semitic discourse, Iran frequently disputes the legitimacy of the Holocaust. They view the Holocaust as pivotal in the justification of Zionism, and furthermore, an effective way for Israel to extort Western countries for financial and political support. While many credit President Ahmadinejad for popularizing this stance, Supreme Leader Khomeini resorted to Holocaust denial years before Ahmadinejad came to office. This practice has become commonplace in Iran, with the United Ministry of Foreign Affairs regularly using Holocaust denial to undermine the legitimacy of Israel in every way possible.

The course continues its focus on contemporary anti-Semitism in the sixth and final week, concentrating on the ways in which it is expressed and the complexities that arise when attempting to identify its more blurred manifestations. In the first module, which explores the challenges related to identifying anti-Semitism, Kenneth L. Marcus offers his expertise and knowledge on the subject. Mr. Marcus, who is the President and Founder of the Louis D. Brandeis Center, as well as its General Counsel, speaks to the boundaries between legitimate and illegitimate criticism of Israel. One common measure used to identify illegitimate, and therefore anti-Semitic, criticism of Israel is the 3-D test: This test begins by asking whether the Jewish state is being demonized. Demonizing does not mean criticizing, but rather, ascribing demonic or otherworldly characteristics to the Jewish state. Secondly, this test asks whether the Jewish state is being delegitimized? This refers to the notion that Israel alone lacks legitimacy among the nations in the same way that the Jewish religion was claimed to lack legitimacy during prior generations. Finally, the 3-D test considers whether double standards are being used in the criticism of Israel. Holding Israel to different set of standards and applying those standards to one country alone would suggest that the criticism of Israel is illegitimate. By evaluating topics such as demonization, delegitimization, and double standards, the 3-D test serves as the basis for the most important international definitions of anti-Semitism. In fact, this test provides the backbone for the US State Department’s definition of anti-Semitism, as well as the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance’s definition, which is used by several countries.

Additionally, Mr. Marcus sheds light as to the status of the BDS movement in contemporary discussions of anti-Semitism. The BDS movement (Boycott, Divestment, and Sanctions against Israel) tries to isolate Israel from the international community by encouraging consumer, institutional, and/or government sanction of Israel. It is worth noting that those who support the BDS movement should not automatically be considered anti-Semites. To determine whether BDS supporters are anti-Semitic, one must closely examine their motivations and actions. However, when evaluating BDS as a whole, it becomes clear that this movement is both discriminatory and anti-Semitic. This is evidenced by the fact that many of BDS’s leaders hold strong negative attitudes towards Jews, and that much of their discourse is rooted in classic, anti-Jewish stereotypes. This movement has become particularly prevalent on college campuses, and AMCHA Initiative survey research has demonstrated that those campuses where BDS resolutions are argued correlate with a disproportionate number of attacks targeting Jewish students. These resolutions change the environment for Jewish students, so that individuals Jews are perceived as being complicit in perpetrating supposed human rights violations against non-Jews in the Israel-Palestine conflict.

The course continues with a discussion of the deeply conspiratorial features that are frequently associated with contemporary anti-Semitism. The claim that Jews or Zionists possess considerable wealth, power, and influence, and are using it control democratic governments, financial institutions, and media corporations, can be found among all spheres from which anti-Semitism is present today. These conspiratorial accusations, which are often based in centuries-old stereotypes, have been facilitated by the growth of social media and the internet. While the internet and social media have enabled individuals to have instant access to information and knowledge, it has also allowed for the spread and dissemination of anti-Semitism. Online hate and viral anti-Semitism are hostilities which often prove difficult to counter, however, there are certain actions that can be taken to minimize their occurrence. This includes enhancing social media platforms’ ability to deal with this issue, educating people as to their own role and power in combatting viral anti-Semitism, and demonstrating to leaders the political benefits that can be wrought through their actions.

The course concludes by examining the ways in which anti-Semitism is confronted and dealt with today, beginning with increased research. Understanding the roots, history, forms, and characteristics of anti-Semitism are pivotal in formulating the most effective strategies to combat this scourge. Additionally, having a definition of what should and should not be identified as anti-Semitic expression could provide guidance to both domestic and international policymakers. While a body of European legislation, such as the Council of Europe Convention on cybercrime protects Jews and places legal parameters on incitement to hatred against Jews, national governments must enhance their own legislation following this example.

In time, can anti-Semitism be uprooted completely? Potentially. While anti-Semitism may be entrenched in much of our social dynamic, it is not something we are born with; Rather, it is something we are taught. FutureLearn and Yad Vashem’s online course represents a tremendous step forward in the long and arduous battle to eliminate anti-Semitism. Over the course of six weeks, students investigate the origins and manifestations of anti-Semitism. This journey began with an evaluation of the rise of religiously rooted anti-Semitism in the Middle Ages, then giving way to a discussion of the major social changes that allowed anti-Semitism to become prolific in the modern world. The exploration concluded with an exploration of anti-Semitism in the contemporary world, where views of Israel and Zionism as the antithesis to all that is right and good are far too prolific. While there are times when a world without anti-Semitism may seem difficult to envision, FutureLearn’s course provides hope the future. The first step in combatting this pervasive malady is to understand it. Through rigorous and thorough instruction, “Anti-Semitism: From Its Origins to the Present” should be considered one of the most valuable tools in this laudable endeavor.